Statistics Business Research Methods and Analysis

Question: Talk about the Statistics Business Research Methods and Analysis. Answer: Presentation: The espresso estate in Australia is completed for over 200 years. The spots of the nation where espresso is developed can be ordered into three areas northern New South Wales, subtropical locale of Queensland in south east and tropical district of north Queensland (Iori et al. 2014). In this task, the development of the espresso business over the most recent couple of decades is being examined. The Australian Subtropical Coffee Association is picked for the reason. A framework thought regarding the techniques for information assortment and investigation of the information is given in this task. The conceivable understanding of the aftereffects of the examination is likewise given in this task. Issue Statement: The issue proclamation of the exploration task is to distinguish the development of espresso business in Australia. Examination point: The point of the examination is to recognize the development of espresso business in Australia and the variables that has realized the development. Examination objective: The target of the exploration work is as per the following: To decide the development of the espresso business. To discover the elements behind the development of espresso industry. To conjecture the future business of the business. Exploration questions: The significant inquiries posed in this examination work are as per the following: What is the pace of development of the espresso business in Australia in Australian subtropical area? What are the variables that have realized this development of business? How are the new changes realized in the business? Writing audit: Espresso manor in Australia is done in various pieces of the nation. The espresso manor of subtropical locale stretches out from Coffs Harbor to Noosa (Prijono and Bana 2015). There are around 35 cultivators that produce just about 600 tons of espresso (Boreux et al. 2016). The espresso is developed as green espresso seeds in the ranch plants. The blossoming of the plants happens during November December month and fruits are developed following 4 two months (Clifford 2012). The fruits keep going for 4-5 months. The fruits are reaped and handled. These prepared espressos showcased globally as green espresso beans. The green espresso beans are simmered to set up the espresso to drink (Walters and Broom 2013). The Australian Subtropical espresso Association is shaped by the people groups who are occupied with espresso industry beginning from espresso developing, handling to advancing and publicizing of espresso (Williams 2014). The espresso ranch in Australia has confronted numerous difficulties like deficiency of laborers for culling espresso beans. Espresso business couldn't make a lot of benefit before. In the current days, espresso creation and estate has developed by the utilization of new innovation (Miura et al. 2014). Factors and speculations: The significant factors related with this exploration work are the costs of espresso, the creation figures of espresso, the quantity of individuals utilized in the espresso business. The development of business of the business is estimated as far as creation figures and the costs of the item. The factors like costs of espresso and the quantity of individuals utilized in the business are reliant on the creation figures. The significant theories associated with this exploration work are: H01: The espresso business in Australia doesn't change in the ongoing occasions. H11: The espresso business has changed in the nation. Operational definitions and estimations: The issue in the examination work is to decide the progressions realized in the Australian Subtropical Coffee Association and the components adding to such development. The fundamental factors in the examination work are costs of espresso, creation figures of espresso and the quantity of firms occupied with espresso creation. The creation figures are estimated in tones and the costs are in Australian dollars. The espresso ranch firms that are taken for the examination study are of a similar area. So there will be no variety in the creation figures because of contrasts in atmosphere or different elements like accessibility of laborers. The variety underway figures because of progress of climatic conditions throughout the years can undoubtedly be resolved from the information. The estimations of the factors are surmised figures. The investigation won't be influenced by this in light of the fact that the qualities apply for an exceptionally enormous zone. Examination strategy and structure: The information gathered with the end goal of the exploration is of auxiliary kind. There are around 35 espresso developing organizations that work on in excess of 300 hectares of region. The measure of espresso delivered every year by the organizations is gotten from the organization site. The figures of number of laborers in such firms, costs of espresso sold, working pay of such firms are gotten from the organization site. No such imperative is associated with accomplishing the examination work. The information gathered will be dissected with the assistance of factual techniques, for example, distinct measurements strategies, relapse investigation and time arrangement examination. Philosophy: Information assortment: The information that will be gathered is of optional information. The site of Australian Subtropical espresso Association contains information about the diverse espresso developing firms in the area among Noosa and Coffs harbor. The information about the all out estate and creation of espresso, the cost of espresso in the current time frame and the quantity of laborers in those organizations are reachable from the companys site (Astca.org 2016). Information examination: The examination of the information is done by applying different distinct measurements techniques. The distinctions in proportions of focal propensity like mean and middle estimations of present and past time of creation will demonstrate the development of the business. A direct relapse can be fitted taking creation figures as autonomous variable and cost as reliant factors. A huge estimation of relapse coefficient will show the factor has added to the business development. A period arrangement examination should be possible to decide the creation figures of next 10 years. Ends: In this task the development of espresso business in Australia is being contemplated. Different strategies for insights like time arrangement investigation, relapse techniques are applied to do the examination. This task will help the Australian Subtropical Coffee Association to have further investigate their espresso developing business and make important strides. This would help in the advancement of espresso developing business in Australia. References: Astca.org. (2016). Australian Subtropical Coffee Association. [online] Available at: https://www.astca.org/[Accessed 29 Aug. 2016]. Boreux, V., Vaast, P., Madappa, L. P., Cheppudira, K. G., Garcia, C., Ghazoul, J. (2016). Agroforestry espresso creation expanded by local shade trees, water system, and liming.Agronomy for Sustainable Development,36(3), 1-9. Clifford, M.N. ed., 2012.Coffee: plant science, organic chemistry and creation of beans and refreshment. Springer Science Business Media. Iori, P., Junior, D., De Souza, M., Ajayi, A.E., Guimares, P.T.G. also, Abreu Jnior, .A., 2014. Impact of field incline and espresso manor age on the physical properties of a Red-Yellow Latosol.Revista Brasileira de Cincia do Solo,38(1), pp.107-117. Miura, K., Hughes, M.C.B., Green, A.C. furthermore, Van Der Pols, J.C., 2014. Caffeine admission and danger of basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas of the skin in a 11-year imminent study.European diary of nutrition,53(2), pp.511-520. Prijono, S. furthermore, Bana, S., 2015. Investigation of Soil Moisture on Coffee Plantation in Dry Land Using Neutron Probe in Malang, East Java.Bull. Env. Pharmacol. Life Sci,4(2), pp.135-143. Walters, P. furthermore, Broom, A., 2013. The city, the caf, and the open domain in Australia. InCaf society(pp. 185-205). Palgrave Macmillan US. Williams, C., 2014. Reasonable exchange espresso: a decent decision for maintainability?.

Transpower Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Transpower - Assignment Example This investigation comes in the wake of a declaration from the New Zealand government, for example, that there had been an allotment in the measure of $4.6 billion for the updating of the national force lattice through the span of the following ten years, starting in 2012, with the key reason for the speculations being the modernization of the framework and the setting up of foundation to prepared the nation for future increments in power utilization and request. This reserve is additionally reserved to in like manner improve unwavering quality of intensity flexibly to shoppers, both mechanical and private. Then again, the speculation plan additionally goes after the present condition of age and transmission in New Zealand, where age offices are unified, and require the sort of transmission framework ventures that could be restricted and diminished by putting more in conveyed age pushing ahead. The thought is that transmission ventures are not carved in stone as essential, if age is disseminated, and if such offices are found near the interest. Where this turns into a reality, at that point there is a decreased need to assemble enormous age offices and the vital transmission foundation expected to pipe the ability to the shoppers (Sustainable Energy Association, 2012). II. Transmission Upgrade Projects Are On-going and Massive The interest in extra matrix framework, specifically new transmission lines abilities/limits on the current foundation, or as an expansion to that, has been on-going, with the absolute capital expense for those undertakings scheduled at $5 billion throughout the following ten years, as evaluated by Transpower itself, and separated into various key foundation extends, some on-going, and with changing culmination dates. The key undertakings are supposed to be one, the updating of the transmission framework in the North Island, which is expected to raise another connection for transmitting power among Auckland and Whakamaru; two, overhauling of the transmission interface among Northland and North Auckland, which involves setting up a 220 kV foundation interface just as two substations; three, the substitution of the shaft used to connect various islands in New Zealand by means of HVDC, explicitly Pole 1; and four, the erection of another transmission foundation among Whakamaru and Wairakei, that will be twofold circuited (Transpower, 2012). The redesigning of the entire framework in the North Island is supposed to be among the biggest of the present harvest of on-going tasks, with venture fulfillment scheduled in 2012, and

Weight Loss Programs

Nourishment Throughout Life †Weight Loss Programs. Health improvement plans: Jenny Craig and Elite' N' Easy 1. The motivation behind this item and additionally benefits Jenny Craig: The reason for Jenny Craig Is to show their customers how to eat well, move more and living. This program doesn't just assistance you with the controlling of the body and nourishment yet in addition aids the brain too. As the body is secured by practice schedules created to fit with the program the nourishment Is secured by the acquisition of the marking suppers and the psyche Is taken care of with inspiration, consolation and aspiration to support you while you are doing the program. Jenny trains divide control and a reasonable way to deal with living, with the opportunity to carry on with your life your way. Source: http://WV. Johnnycake. Com/site/how-it-works Weight Watchers: The motivation behind Weight Watchers Is to enable their customers to get more fit. They have a blend of diet instruments a nd strategies are compelling and easy to try. Each and every powerful device Is given In the Weight Watchers Point List.These apparatuses enables the customers to get in shape by being able to improve nourishment areas, just and effectively 2. The focused on crowds of this item Jenny Crag's focused on crowd used to target individuals In their late ass and ass. From that point forward they have another, more extensive objective crowd of 20-to 50-year olds as opposed to the past objective crowd they had. Weight Watchers: Weight Watchers focused on crowd is overweight 35+ ladies, however after they have widened their objective to ladies under the time of 40+. . The unwavering quality and precision of each program In the terms and state of utilization in Jenny Craig it says: Whilst we utilize every single sensible endeavor to guarantee the exactness and culmination of the Content on this Site, we are not dependable if the Content that we make accessible isn't precise or complete. Any de pendence on the Content will be at your own hazard. You concur that it Is your duty to screen any progressions to the Content as it might change without notice. ‘-source: towpath. ]encyclical. Mother. AU/terms - It Is demonstrated to be precise with the data they give on the site just as their data booklets. Weight Watchers: The Weight Watchers diet is demonstrated to have precise data with the sustenance aloes and realities on how this eating regimen Is successful, In the terms and states of utilization they have referenced that: All Information gave about getting more fit is exact, and data will be refreshed now and again however there will be no admonition on when the Information is updated.They have likewise referenced that just doing one piece of the new eating regimen presented won't help you in any capacity for you to get in shape. T Off 4. The general e Ellen Craig: peculiarity to each program Ellen Craig resembles most other eating regimen and exercise programs in tha t it accomplishes work, resuscitated the individual puts their best, most legit exertion into the program. In spite of the fact that, without your own exertion, Jenny Craig program is in the long run useless and won't help you by any stretch of the imagination. Without your full duty, Jenny Craig get-healthy plan is ineffective.Jenny Craig is an eating routine and exercise program where the handle the eating routine, practice and mental angles by urging you to remain with it and be glad for the outcomes you gain. Weight Watchers is demonstrated to be powerful as it is advantageous for you any place you go. Weight Watchers is more successful than standard weight reduction direction' as per an investigation distributed in 2011 in the Lancet. Scientists followed 772 overweight and decently large individuals who either followed Weight Watchers or got weight reduction direction from their doctors.After a year, those in the Weight Watchers bunch had dropped 6. 8 barrel contrasted and 3. 2 barrel for the specialist prompted gathering. Additionally, 61 percent of the Weight Watchers health food nuts stayed with the program for the full a year the examination kept going, contrasted and 54 percent for the standard-care gathering. The Weight Watchers for the most part had achievement in the customary tests on their weight and gathering gatherings. They additionally had relentless consolation and backing from the dieters.The study was financed by Weight Watchers, yet an autonomous research group was liable for all information assortment and examination. †source: http://wellbeing. Ligaments. Com/best-diet/weight-watchers-diet 5. The present moment and long haul expenses of each program Ellen Craig A Cost changes, contingent upon whether you decide to go to week by week face to face gatherings or utilize the online apparatuses as it were. A month to month go to boundless in-person gatherings is $39. 95, which likewise incorporates access to tools.Or you can pay more on ly as costs arise; gatherings are $12 to $1 5 every week, with a one-time $20 enlistment expense. To follow online just, a 3-month plan is $65. None of the expenses incorporate nourishment. 6. Fundamentally investigations the sites you got your data from for exactness and The Jenny Craig site is a dependable site, which shows an immense scope of data basic for individuals who are making a decent attempt to get more fit, it shows a wide assortment of sound nourishments you can have for breakfast, lunch and dinner.They additionally have specialists for all states, likewise these experts a supported up by a group of REAL dietitians and Gasp, these advisors are useful as they help you constantly create information in nourishment, body and psyche. The Jenny Craig site is planned in a sorted out manner which is simple tort the customers to see the implication and nave composed fundamental data into a simple path for the customers to see. The site has been planned such that looks tastefull y satisfying to any individual who sees their website.The Weight Watchers site is a helpful site, it has an orderly method to show data on how their eating routine functions their nourishments and plans, wellness and wellbeing and the examples of overcoming adversity of individuals who have utilized this eating regimen and have arrived at their objective. The site itself would look significantly better on the off chance that they had offset the data everywhere throughout the page in light of the fact that the majority of the data on the landing page is on the base; it looks excessively swarmed at the base. Likewise with the connections to nourishment and plans they ought to have included additional connections isolating the nourishment for breakfast, lunch and supper and so on.

Private branch exchange system - Free Essay Example

INTRODUCTION 1.0 INTRODUCTION Private branch exchange system (PBXs) operates as a connection within private organizations usually a business. Because they incorporate telephones, the general term extension is used to refer to any end point on the branch. The PBX handles calls between these extensions. The primary advantage of PBXs was cost savings on internal phone calls: handling the circuit switching locally reduced charges for local phone services. The private branch exchange (PBX) provides internal station-to-station communications for a well-defined set of users. Three distinct generations of private branch exchanges have appeared. In the first generation (1900-1930), a human operator manually set up calls. Second-generation private branch exchanges (mid-1930s to mid-1970s) used mechanical relays to establish the call path. The third generation of private branch exchanges is the stored-program microprocessor-controlled system. Introduced in the mid-1970s, these systems use computer instructions to perform the call set-up and tear-down. The third-generation private branch exchange is physically much smaller than electromechanical models, uses less power, and generates less heat.(Brooks, 1999) In this project, the design of a 4 line telephone systems with full signaling and switching functions similar to those of the central office systems was embarked upon. Dial tone, busy tone, and ring tone are provided during call process. Switching employs integrated circuit (IC) matrix switches on four buses. Thus, this system is expandable to 8 lines (4 pairs) if more hardware is added. This system is switching on the Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF) dialing signal. 1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The major problems this project intends to deal with are: * Cut down cost of internal calls made within a company. * Eliminate the need for a central telephone company to help you monitor your internal calls. * Eliminate Stress of notification of telephone company each time you need a new extension and thereby reducing cost. * Ensure security of your internal calls which otherwise can be tapped by company operating it. * Eliminate the need for a manual switchboard and subsequently an operator to connect the calls. * Reduce man-hours lost through staff walking about in an office in order to pass information to each other. 1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: The main aim of this project is to design and implement a 4 line private exchange box that is able to create connection between four different telephone lines internally without having to connect to an external or trunk line. The objectives include: * Establishing connections between the telephone sets of any two users. (e.g. mapping a dialed number to a physical phone) * Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them. (i.e. channeling voice signals between the users) * Creating an easy means of communication in an office without getting to spend money for their internal calls. * To switch between telephone users thereby creating connections. * To make sure the connection remains in place as long as it last, by keeping its resources. * To properly end the connection when a user hangs up. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The ability or concept of providing an easy and less expensive way of communication within a small office or organization without having to pay for your internal calls or having limits to the rate or length of calls within the office. Also it is not necessary to go from office to office when something is needed, information is to be passed; a call to a colleague saves stress of walking about. 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY The Private Exchange System in this project is limited to a four lines which means that internal calls can be made from only four nodes. As such, it is only suitable for very small organization. 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The review of existing and related works to source appropriate information on how to go about the implementation of the project will be carried out. Information shall be gathered from text books, magazines, journals, and World Wide Web to provide answers in relation to the study. Based on the review, the design and implementation of a four line private exchange box system shall be carried out. 1.6 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY There are several factors that could contribute to the group not delving deeper into this project which could have resulted in a more comprehensive work. Constraints are unavoidable in any system, be it a natural system or a computer system. Due to the extensiveness of this project topic, limitations were encountered some of which include: * Time constraint. * Financial constraints. * Inadequate facilities to work with. 1.7 ORGANIZATION OF WORK In chapter one, the research topic is introduced, which is followed by the statement of problem after which the aims and objectives of the study are stated, significance of study, scope of study and research methodology are all identified. The second chapter gives us a view of the related works which have been done and how they are related to our work. The third chapter is about our design methodology and this emphasizes on how the whole private exchange system works and its components. The quality of the system is tested and documented in chapter four. Also in chapter four, an in-depth manual of the system functions and contents is given. A summary of all chapters, a conclusion is outlined in chapter five. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 HISTORY OF PRIVATE EXCHANGE BOX In the field of telecommunications, a telephone exchange or telephone switch is a system of electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make phone calls work in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information. Early telephone exchanges are a suitable example of circuit switching; the subscriber would ask the operator to connect to another subscriber, whether on the same exchange or via an inter-exchange link and another operator. In any case, the end result was a physical electrical connection between the two subscribers telephones for the duration of the call. The copper wire used for the connection could not be used to carry other calls at the same time, even if the subscribers were in fact not talking and the line was silent. The first telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Connecticut in 1878. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from tea pot lids and bustle wire and could handle two simultaneous conversations. Later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by telephone operators. Each operator sat in front of a vertical panel containing banks of  ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve (3-conductor) jacks, each of which was the local termination of a subscribers telephone line. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each pair connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, a signal lamp near the jack would light. The operator would plug one of the cords (the answering cord) into the subscribers jack and switch her headset into the circuit to ask, number please? Depending upon the answer, the operator might plug the other cord of the pair (the ringing cord) into the called partys local jack and start t he ringing cycle, or plug into a trunk circuit to start what might be a long distance call handled by subsequent operators in another bank of boards or in another building miles away. 2.1 PBX SYSTEM COMPONENTS PBX is a telephone exchange serving a single organization and having no means for connecting to a public telephone system it serves a user company which wants to have its own communication branch to save some money on internal calls. This is done by having the exchanging or switching of circuits done locally, inside the company. There are some important components which play a major role in the implementation of an effective PBX system. Some of the Component * The PBXs internal switching network. * Central processor unit (CPU) or computer inside the system, including memory. * Logic cards, switching and control cards, power cards and related devices that facilitate PBX operation. * Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines. * Outside Telco trunks that deliver signals to (and carry them from) the PBX. * Console or switchboard allows the operator to control incoming calls. * Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) consisting of sensors, power switches and batteries. * Interconnecting wiring. * Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings. 2.2 PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE (PBX) There are essentially three different types of PBXs that could be deployed within an organization infrastructure. It is necessary to be certain of type in use, so as to be able to identify the essential numbers. There are currently three different PBX classes: Centrex; Direct Inward Dialing (DID)/Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) and Megalink. 2.2.1 CENTREX Centrex is the easiest of the PBX types. This PBX, unlike other types is installed within the telephone companys Central Office (CO) and does not require dialing an extension code (normally 4 numeric characters) after having dialed the 7 to 10 digit number to connect a call to an individual. In a simplistic manner, it could be considered similar to the telephone used at home. It has an area code (NPA), an Exchange (NXX) and a Unique Number, (0000 to 9999) and does not require the dialling of another number after it in order to place a call. These numbers may be entered through a PAD. 2.2.2 Direct Inward Dialing(DID)/ Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) Unlike a Centrex, these types of PBXs is not installed within the telephone companys Central Office. Secondly, if a cut of the telephone wire occurs outside the building, individuals are still able to dial within it to talk to colleagues by simply dialing their extension number (normally a number between 0000 to 9999) lastly; this PBX is controlled via a computer interface at a control console. Since the PBX requires constant power to function, it may be necessary to hook it with generating plant, in the absence of power from electricity company. Direct Inward Dialing (DID) and Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) are simply features of an Automated PBX which require that you dial the companys general telephone number followed by the entry of the individuals extension number when prompted to do so. DIDs allow you direct dialing (seven digits) to locate an individual within an organizations PBX. It is a trunk phone number that must be entered into the PAD program and flagged as a PBX to ensure that the outgoing line(s) get priority. PBXs may be privately owned or telecommunication company owned. If PBX is programmable it is possible to assign specific trunk lines to specific numbers. These trunk line numbers may then be entered on PAD thus providing dial tone protection. 2.2.3 MEGALINKS The major difference between this and a Centrex PBX is that the exiting trunk lines from a building to the telephone company central office are comprised of fibre optic cables and not through twisted pair wiring. Another difference is that unlike a Centrex that is identified by its ten digit telephone number (NPA, NXX, and Unique), Megalinks are identified by a circuit ID number. This number may contain characters and may even resemble a telephone number, however, PAD does not allow for the entry of the circuit switch identifier. The reason is quite simple, fibre optic cabling circuits can handle far more traffic than twisted pair PBXs. 2.3 INTERFACE STANDARDS Interfaces for connecting extensions to a PBX include: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) the common two-wire interface used in most homes. This is cheap and effective, and allows almost any standard phone to be used as an extension. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Proprietary the manufacturer has defined a protocol. One can only connect the manufacturers sets to their PBX, but the benefit is more visible information displayed and/or specific function buttons. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ DECT a standard for connecting cordless phones. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Internet Protocol For example, H.323 and SIP. Interfaces for connecting PBXs to each other include: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Proprietary protocols if equipment from several manufacturers is on site, the use of a standard protocol is required. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ QSIG for connecting PBXs to each other, usually runs over T1 (T-carrier) or E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ DPNSS for connecting PBXs to trunk lines. Standardised by British Telecom, this usually runs over E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Internet Protocol H.323, SIP and IAX protocols are IP based solutions which can handle voice and multimedia (e.g. video) calls. Interfaces for connecting PBXs to trunk lines include: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Standard POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) lines the common two-wire interface used in most domestic homes. This is adequate only for smaller systems, and can suffer from not being able to detect incoming calls when trying to make an outbound call. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ ISDN the most common digital standard for fixed telephony devices. This can be supplied in either Basic (2 circuit capacity) or Primary (24 or 30 circuit capacity) versions. Most medium to large companies would use Primary ISDN circuits carried on T1 or E1 physical connections. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ RBS (Robbed bit signaling) delivers 24 digital circuits over a four-wire (T1) interface. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Internet Protocol H.323, SIP, MGCP, and Inter-Asterisk eXchange protocols operate over IP and are supported by some network providers. Interfaces for collecting data from the PBX: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Serial interface historically used to print every call record to a serial printer. Now an application connects via serial cable to this port. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Network Port (Listen mode) where an external application connects to the TCP or UDP port. The PBX then starts streaming information down to the application. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Network Port (Server mode) The PBX connects to another application or buffer. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ File The PBX generates a file containing the call records from the PBX. The call records from the PBX are called SMDR, CDR, or CIL.   (Micheal, 1999) 2.4 TELEPHONE Telephone is one of the most amazing devices ever created.   Although most people take it completely for granted, the telephone is one of the most amazing devices ever created. To talk to someone, just pick up the phone and dial a few digits; connection will be established with the person and a two-way conversation can take place. It is an instrument designed for simultaneous transmission and reception of the human voice. It works by converting the sound waves of the human voice to pulses of electrical current, transmitting the current, and then retranslating the current back to sound. The U.S. patent granted to Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 for developing a device to transmit speech sounds over electric wires is often called the most valuable ever issued. Within 20 years, the telephone acquired a form that has remained fundamentally unchanged for more than a century. The advent of the transistor (1947) led to lightweight, compact circuitry . Advances in electronics have allo wed the introduction of a number of smart features such as automatic redialing, caller identification, call waiting, and call forwarding. The figure 2.1 shows the major components that makes up a telephone set. 2.5 HOW TELEPHONE WORKS When a person speaks into a telephone, the sound waves created by his voice enter the mouthpiece. An electric current carries the sound to the telephone of the person he is talking to. A telephone has two main parts: (1) the transmitter and (2) the receiver.The Transmitter of a telephone serves as a sensitive electric ear. It lies behind the mouthpiece of the phone. Like the human ear, the transmitter has 14 eardrum. The eardrum of the telephone is a thin, round metal disk called a diaphragm. When a person talks into the telephone, the sound waves strike the diaphragm and make it vibrate. The diaphragm vibrates at various speeds, depending on the variations in air pressure caused by the varying tones of the speakers voice.   Behind the diaphragm lies a small cup filled with tiny grains of carbon. The diaphragm presses against these carbon grains. Low voltage electric current travels through the grains. This current comes from batteries at the telephone company. The pressure on the carbon grains varies as sound waves make the diaphragm vibrate. A loud sound causes the sound waves to push hard on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm presses the grains tightly together. This action makes it easier for the electric current to travel through, and a large amount of electricity flows through the grains. When the sound is soft, the sound waves push lightly on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm puts only a light pressure on the carbon grains. The grains are pressed together loosely. This makes it harder for the electric current to pass through them, and less current flows through the grains. Thus, the pattern of the sound waves determines the pressure on the diaphragm. This pressure, in turn, regulates the pressure on the carbon grains. The crowded or loose grains cause the electric current to become stronger or weaker. The current copies the pattern of the sound waves and travels over a telephone wire to the receiver of another telephone. The Receiver serves as an electric mouth. Like a human voice, it has vocal cords. The vocal cords of the receiver are a diaphragm. Two magnets located at the edge of the diaphragm cause it to vibrate. One of the magnets is a permanent magnet that constantly holds the diaphragm close to it. The other magnet is an electromagnet. It consists of a piece of iron with a coil of wire wound around it. When an electric current passes through the coil, the iron core becomes magnetized. The diaphragm is pulled toward the iron core and away from the permanent magnet. The pull of the electromagnet varies between strong and weak, depending on the variations in the current. Thus, the electromagnet controls the vibrations of the diaphragm in the receiver.The electric current passing through the electromagnet becomes stronger or weaker according to the loud or soft sounds. This action causes the diaphragm to vibrate according to the speakers speech pattern. As the diaphragm moves in and out, it pulls and pushes the air in front of it. The pressure on the air sets up sound waves that are the same as the ones sent into the transmitter. The sound waves strike the ear of the listener and he hears the words of the speaker. (www.howstuffworks.com) 2.6 THE RINGER Simply speaking this is a device that alerts you to an incoming call. It may be a bell, light, or warbling tone.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   The ringing signal is in an AC wave form.   Although the common frequency used can be any frequency between 15 and 68 Hz.   Most of the world uses frequencies   between   20 and 40 Hz.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   The voltage at the subscribers end depends upon loop length and number   of   ringers attached to the line; it could be between 40 and 150 Volts. The ringing cadence (the timing of ringing to pause), varies from company to company.   In the United States the cadence is normally 2 seconds of ringing to 4 seconds of pause. An unanswered phone in the United States will keep ringing until the caller hangs up.   But in some countries, the ringing will time out if the call is not answered. The   most   common   ringing   device is   the   gong   ringer; a solenoid   coil   with a clapper that strikes either a single or double bell. A gong ringer is the loudest signaling device that is solely phone-line powered. Modern telephones tend to use warbling ringers, which are usually ICs powered by the rectified ringing signal.   The audio transducer is a small   loudspeaker via a transformer. Ringers are isolated from the DC of the phone line by a capacitor. Gong ringers in the United States use a 0.47 uF capacitor.   Warbling ringers in the United States generally use a 1.0 uF capacitor.   Telephone companies in other   parts   of   the world   use   capacitors   between   0.2   and   2.0   uF.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   The  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   paper capacitors of the past have been replaced almost exclusively with capacitors made of Mylar film.   Their voltage rating is always 50 Volts.   The capacitor and ringer coil, or Zeners in a warbling ringer, constitute a resonant circuit. When phone is hung up (on hook) the ringer is across the line; and it has merely silenced the transducer, not removed the circuit from the line. When the telephone company uses the ringer to test the line, it   sends   a   low-voltage, low frequency   signal   down   the   line (usually   2 Volts at 10 Hz) to test for continuity. The company compares result with the expected signals of the line.   This is how it can tell whether an added equipment is on the line. If your telephone has had its ringer disconnected, the telephone company cannot detect its presence on the line. Because there is only a certain amount of current available to   drive ringers, if ringers are added to phone lines indiscriminately, a point will be reached at which either all ringers will cease to ring, some will cease to ring, or some ringers will ring   weakly. A normal ringer is defined as   a   standard gong   ringer   as   supplied   in   a   phone   company   standard   desk telephone; Value given to this ringer   is   Ringer   Equivalence Number   (REN)   1. It can be as high as 3.2, which means that device consumes the equivalent   power   of   3.2 standard ringers, or 0.0, which means it consumes no current when subjected   to   a   ringing   signal.   If   there is a problem with ringing, it could be that the REN is greater than 5, disconnecting ringers until REN is at 5 or below will usually solve the problem. Other countries have various ways of expressing   REN,   and some   systems   will handle no more than three of   their   standard ringers.   But whatever the system, if an extra equipment was added and the   phones   stop ringing, or the phone answering   machine   wont pick   up   calls,   the solution is disconnect   ringers   until   the problem   is resolved. Warbling ringers tend to draw less current than   gong   ringers, so changing from gong   ringers   to   warbling ringers may help spread the sound better. Frequency response is the second criterion by which a ringer is described. Because a ringer is supposed to respond to AC waveforms,   it will tend to respond to transients (such as switching transients) when the phone is hung up, or when the rotary dial is used on   an extension phone.   This is called bell tap in the United States; in other   countries,   its often called   bell   tinkle.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   While European and   Asian phones tend to bell tap, or   tinkle,   United States ringers that bell tap are considered defective. The bell tap   is   designed out of gong ringers and fine   tuned   with   bias springs.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Warbling   ringers   for use in the   United   States   are designed   not   to respond to short transients;   this   is   usually accomplished   by   rectifying the AC and filtering   it   before   it powers the IC,   then not switching on the output stage unless the voltage lasts long enough to charge a second capacitor.(Roberts, 2006) 2.7 HOOK SWITCH This is a lever that is depressed when the handset is resting in its cradle. It is a two-wire to four-wire converter that provides conversion between the four-wire handset and the two-wire local loop. There are two stages, which are off   hook and on hook Off hook: The state of a telephone line that allows dialing and transmission but prohibits incoming calls from being answered. The phone is off-hook when the handset is removed from the base unit of a stationary phone or press Talk on a portable phone. The term stems from the days when the handset was lifted off an actual hook. When the handset was removed, a spring caused contacts to press together, closing the circuit from the telephone to the switchboard. On hook: The condition that exists when a telephone or other user instrument is not in use, i.e., when idle waiting for a call. Note: on-hook originally referred to the storage of an idle telephone reciever, i.e., separate earpiec, on a swithch hook. The weigth of the recieved depresses the sping leaded switch hook thereby disconnecting the idle instrument (except its bell) from the telephone line.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   (Roberts, 2006) 2.8 THE DIAL There are two types of dials in use around the world. The most common one is called pulse, loop disconnect, or rotary; the oldest form of dialing, its been in use since the 1920s. The other dialing   method,   is called Touch-tone, Dual Tone Multi-Frequency   (DTMF) Pulse dialing   is traditionally accomplished with   a   rotary dial,   which is a speed governed wheel with a cam that opens   and closes a switch in series with the phone and the line.   It works by   actually   disconnecting   or hanging   up   the   telephone   at specific intervals.   The United States standard is one disconnect per  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   digit,  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   so if a   1, is dailled, the telephone   is disconnected once. To dial a seven means that it will be   disconnected seven times; and dialling a zero means that it will hang up ten times. Some countries invert the system so 1 causes ten disconnects   and 0,   one disconnect.   Some add a digit so that dialing a 5 would cause six disconnects and 0, eleven disconnects.   There are even some systems in which dialing 0 results in one   disconnect,   and all   other digits are plus one, making a 5 cause six   disconnects and 9, ten disconnects. Although most exchanges are quite happy with rates of 6   to 15   Pulses Per Second (PPS), the phone company accepted   standard is   8   to   10 PPS.   Some modern digital exchanges, free   of   the mechanical   inertia problems of older systems, will accept a   PPS rate as high as 20. Besides   the PPS rate, the dialing pulses have a   make/break ratio,   usually   described as a percentage, but   sometimes   as   a straight   ratio.   The North American standard is 60/40   percent; most of Europe accepts a standard of 63/37 percent.   This is the pulse measured at the telephone, not at the exchange, where   its somewhat   different, having traveled through the phone line   with its   distributed   resistance, capacitance,   and   inductance.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   In practice, theÂà ‚   make/break   ratio does not   seem   to   affect   the performance of the dial when attached to a normal loop.   However,each pulse is a switch connect and disconnect across   a complex   impedance, so the switching transient often reaches   300 Volts. Usually, a safe practice is not to have fingers   across   the   line   when dialing. Most pulse dialing phones produced today use a CMOS IC and a keyboard.   Instead of pushing finger round in circles, then removing finger and waiting for the dial to return   before dialing the next digit, the button can be punched as fast as desired.   The IC stores the number and pulses out the number at the correct rate with the correct make/break ratio and the switching is done with a high-voltage switching transistor.   Because the IC has already stored the dialed number in order to pulse it out at the   correct rate,   its a simple matter for telephone designers to   keep   the memory alive   and allow the telephone to   store,   recall,   and redial the Last Number Dialed (LND).   This feature enables easy redial by picking up the handset and pushing just one button. Touch tone is the most modern form of dialing. It is   fast   and less   prone to error than pulse dialing.   Compared to pulse, its major advantage is that its audio band signals can   travel   down phone   lines further than pulse, which can travel only as far   as the   local   exchange. Touch-tone can therefore   send   signals around   the   world via the telephone lines, and can   be   used   to control phone answering machines and computers.   Bell   Labs developed DTMF in order to have a dialing   system that   could travel across microwave links and work   rapidly   with computer   controlled exchanges.   Each transmitted digit consists of two separate audio tones that are mixed together. The four   vertical columns on the keypad are known as   the   high group and the four horizontal rows as the low group; the digit   8 is   composed   of 1336 Hz and 852 Hz.   The level of each   tone   is within   3   dB   of the other.   A complete touch-tone pad has 16 digits, as opposed to ten on a pulse dial.   Besides the numerals 0 to 9, a DTMF   dial has *, #, A, B, C, and D.   Although the letters are not normally found   on consumer telephones, the IC in the phone is capable   of generating them. The   * sign is usually called star or asterisk.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   The # sign,   often referred to as the pound sign. is actually   called an   octothorpe. Although many phone users have never used   these digits   -   they are not, after all, ordinarily   used in   dialing phone   numbers. They   are used   for   control   purposes,   phone answering machines, bringing up remote bases, electronic banking, and repeater control.   The one use of the octothorpe that may be familiar occurs in dialing international calls from phones.   After dialing the complete number,   dialing   the octothorpe   lets the exchange know youve finished   dialing.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   It can now begin routing your call; without the octothorpe, it would wait and time out before switching your call. Standard DTMF dials will produce a tone as long as a key   is depressed.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   No matter   how long you press,   the   tone   will   be decoded as the appropriate digit.   The shortest duration in which a digit can be sent and decoded is about 100 milliseconds   (ms).   Its pretty   difficult   to dial by hand at   such   a   speed,   but automatic dialers can do it.   A twelve-digit long distance number can be   dialed by an automatic dialer in a little   more   than   a second about as long as it takes a pulse dial to send a   single 0 digit.(Roberts,2006) 2.9 MODULAR CONNECTORS Modular connector is the name given to a family of electrical connectors that were originally used in telephone wiring. Even though they are still used for that purpose they are used for a variety of other things as well. A modular connectors advantage over many other kinds include; small size and ease of plugging and unplugging. Many uses that originally used a bulkier connector have migrated to modular connectors. Probably the most well known applications of modular connectors is for telephone jacks and for ethernet jacks, which are nearly always modular connectors. Figure 2.2 shows types of connectors commonly used. Modular connectors were first used in the registered jack system, so registered Jack specifications describe them precisely. These are the specifications to which all practical modular connectors are built. Modular connectors come in four sizes: 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-position. A position is a place that can hold a conductor (pin). The positions need not all be used; a connector can have any even number of conductors. Unused positions are usually the outermost positions. The connectors are designed so that a plug can fit into any jack that has at least the number of positions as the plug. Where the jack has more positions than the plug, the outermost positions are unused. However, plugs from different manufacturers may not have this compatibility, and some manufacturers of eight position jacks now explicitly warn that they are not designed to accept smaller plugs without damage. The positions of a jack are numbered left to right, looking into the receiving side of the jack with the hook (locking tab or clip) side down, starting at 1. The positions of plug are numbered the same as the jack positions with which they mate. The number of a conductor is the same as the number of the position its in. So for example in a 6P2C plug, only conductors 3 and 4 exist. Some connector types in the family are indexed, which means their shape is altered from the standard somewhat to prevent them from mating with standard connectors. The indexing is usually a different shape or position of the hook, but can also be an additional tab. The members of the family are typically identified using the format [number]P[number]C, e.g. 6P2C, which means 6 positions, 2 conductors. Alternate formats [number]x[number] (e.g. 62) or [number]/[number (e.g. 6/2) are also used. Modular connectors have gender. The male connector is called a plug, while the female connector is called a jack or sometimes a socket. The application of jack versus plug is generally based on physical installation only. Jacks go in walls and panels, while plugs go on wires. Modular connectors also go by the names modular phone jack/plug, RJ connector, and Western jack/plug. The 8P8C modular connector type is often called RJ45, Modular connectors lock together. A spring-loaded tab called a hook on the plug snaps into a jack so that the plug cannot be pulled out. To remove the plug, the hook has to be pressed. The most common way to install a jack in a wall or panel is with the hook side down. This usually makes it easier to operate the hook when removing the plug, because the person grabs the plug with thumb on top and presses the hook with the index finger. A disadvantage of modular connectors is that the fragile hook on a plug easily snags and often breaks while trying to pull a c ord through other cords or other obstructions. Some higher quality cables have a flexible sleeve called a boot over the plug, or a special hook design, to prevent this. Boots are seen mainly on 8P8C data cables.(www.whatis.com) CHAPTER THREE DESIGN METHODOLOGY 3.0 OVERVIEW This chapter emphasizes on the information or content presented, the functions that will be performed and the behaviour that each system component is expected to exhibit. The design focuses on how the system looks like, the layout and technical structure of the system. A breakdown of this system circuits will further ascertain the functionality of the system. The figure below is a block diagram that describes the whole communication system. The block diagram in figure 3.0 is comprised: * THE CONTROL UNIT * TONE GENERATION * DECODING AND SWITCHING 3.1 THE CONTROL CIRCUIT This is where all control functions of the system are being carried out. The main device that performs this role is the microcontroller which is the heart of the system. The frequency used to generate the tones is from the microcontroller, It is used to monitor the hook comparator to know when it is off-hook (the condition that exists when a telephone is in use) or on-hook (the condition that exists when a telephone is not in use) .When a number is dialed the microcontroller helps to check the EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) if the number dialed is valid before it allows a call to be successful. A microcontroller is a computer-on-a-chip used to control interfaces needed for a simple application. A microcontroller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features: * bit processors to sophisticated 32- or 64-bit processors * serial ports * signal conversion circuits. * RAM for data storage * program storage The 8051 used in this project is an 8-bit microprocessor originally designed in the 1980s by Intel that has gained great popularity since its introduction. Its standard form includes several standard on-chip peripherals, including timers, counters, plus 4kbytes of on-chip program memory and 128 bytes of data memory, making single-chip implementations possible. The 8051 memory architecture includes 128 bytes of data memory that are accessible directly by its instructions. A 32-byte segment of this 128 byte memory block is bit addressable by a subset of the 8051 instructions, namely the bit-instructions. External memory of up to 64 Kbytes is accessible by a special instruction. Up to 4 Kbytes of program instructions can be stored in the internal memory of the 8051, or the 8051 can be configured to use up to 64 Kbytes of external program memory .The majority of the 8051s instructions are executed within 12 clock cycles. The package outline of 8051 microcontroller is shown in fig 3.1 (William, 1998) 3.1.1 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) The function of the EPROM is to store the program that was used .The numbers assigned to each telephone are being programmed into it. It is a type of computer memory chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. In other words, it is non-volatile. It is an array of floating-gate transistors individually programmed by an electronic device that supplies higher voltages than those normally used in electronic circuits. Once programmed, the EPROM can be erased only by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light. It is a ROM-type chip that can hold data from 10-20 years. It is different from PROM because it can be programmed more than once. The EPROM is configured or reconfigured using an EPROM programmer. The EPROM has 8 data lines (bits AD0 AD7) forming a byte wide data bus. Enabling both ALE (Address latch Enable) and PSEN (Program Store Enable) causes all the bits to appear on the data lines, as such individual bits cannot be enabled. The byte of data appears on these lines as 0s or 1s. The data lines of the EPROM are bi-directional, they are outputs when it is being read and they serve as inputs are programming it. Figure 3.2 shows the package view of EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory).(Mano, 2008) A latch is a kind of bistable multivibrator, an electronic circuit which has two stable states and thereby can store one bit of information its output may depend not only on its current input, but also on its previous inputs.The   Latch also separates the Intel 8051 microcontroller address lines from its data lines. The Intel 8255 Programmable Peripheral Interface chip is a peripheral chip. This chip is used to give the CPU access to programmable parallel I/O. The 8255 chip is   used together with a microcontroller to expand its I/O capabilities. 3.2 TONE GENERATION The tone generation deals with how the tones used for the exchange box are generated. The sine wave is the most familiar AC waveform and is the type of wave used in telecommunication. It derives its name from the fact that the current or voltage varies with the sine of the elapsed time. The sine wave is unique in that it represents energy entirely concentrated at a single frequency. However, the microcontroller only generates a square wave. A square wave is a waveform that is built up from a series of harmonics derived from the fundamental frequency. A true square wave will have 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, 13th and 15th harmonics. The rise and fall is very abrupt, straight up and straight down. For an audio signal, all of these combined odd order harmonics would not be considered to be a pleasant sound. Hence, to generate the required sine wave, the square wave has to be filtered. 3.2.1 LOW-PASS FILTER CIRCUIT The low-pass filter circuit is used to cut-off the harmonics in the square waves in order to convert it to a sine wave which is needed. The term low-pass filter merely refers to the shape of the filters response. A low-pass filter is a filter that passes low-frequency signals but attenuates (reduces the amplitude of) signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter to filter. It is sometimes called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter when used in audio applications. The concept of a low-pass filter exists in many different forms, including electronic circuits. One simple electric circuit that will serve as a low-pass filter consists of a resistor in series with a load, and a capacitor in parallel with the load as shown in figure 3.4. The capacitor exhibits reactance, and blocks high-frequency signals, causing them to go through the load instead. At higher frequencies the reactance drops, and the capa citor effectively functions as a short circuit. The combination of resistance and capacitance gives you the time constant of the filter t = RC .The break frequency, also called the turnover frequency or cutoff frequency (in hertz), is determined by the time constant. The figure below is a low pass filter circuit.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   (www.answers.com) 3.2.2 BUFFER   The buffer is used to separate the phase of low-pass filter circuit so that it does not affect other operations on the circuit. A buffer amplifier is one that provides electrical impedance transformation from one circuit to another. Typically a buffer amplifier is used to transfer a voltage from a first circuit, having a high output impedance level, to a second circuit with a low input impedance level. The interposed buffer amplifier prevents the second circuit from loading the first circuit unacceptably and interfering with its desired operation. If the voltage is transferred unchanged (the voltage gain is 1), the amplifier is a unity gain buffer; also known as a voltage follower.   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   3.2.3 PASSIVE COMPONENTS Some Passive components were utilized in the design. Passive components are electronic component that does not increase the power of the electrical signal on which it acts. It may actually end up decreasing the power of the signal it is acting upon. As such, a passive component may draw the energy it uses for its own operation directly from the signal on which it is operating. They are constant components and have resistance (R), capacitance (C) and inductance (L) properties respectively. Resistors: increase the current at the expense of the voltage. A resistors resistance (R) is a measure of the ratio of its potential difference (V) with the current (I): R = V / I The value of resistors are usually expressed in Ohms (?), Capacitors: store electrical energy. A capacitors capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the plates. C = Q / V In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge is stored due to one volt applied potential difference across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads ( µF), nanofarads (nF) or picofarad (pF) Their schematic diagrams and symbols are shown in figure 3.5 below. 3.2.4   TRANSFORMER A transformer is being used in the circuit used to generate a ring back tone because the voltage required to generate it is 90v 120v and the voltage in the circuit is 5v 12v. So the transformer was used to step up the voltage. A transformer is a device that transfers circuit to another through wires. A changing current in the first circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). By adding a load to the secondary circuit, one can make current flow in the transformer, thus transferring energy from one circuit to the other. The secondary induced voltage VS is scaled from the primary VP by a factor ideally equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   (James, 2004)  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Four different tones can be obtained from the circuit of figure 3.6 The square waves from the microcontroller are being passed to a low pass filter circuit and are converted to sine waves. The sign waves are then buffered. A buffer is used to separate the phase of low-pass filter circuit so that it does not affect other operations on the circuit. Two of the frequencies are then mixed to generate a tone. Dial tone: it is a telephony signal used to indicate that the telephone exchange is working and ready to accept a call. The tone stops when the first numeral is dialed, or if there is no response after going off-hook. The tone is generated by adding two sine waves of 350Hz and 440Hz Ring back tone: this is a tone that is heard when your call is successful. The tone is generated by adding two sine waves of 440Hz and 480Hz. Busy tone: is a telephony signal used to indicate that the called telephone is being used at the moment, so it cannot accept a call. The tone is generated by adding two sine waves of 480Hz and 620Hz. Ring tone: is generated when a call goes through to the other partys phone. The tone is composed of a sine wave of 20Hz. The voltage required is 90V 120V, thus necessitating the use of step-up transformer. 3.3 DECODING AND SWITCHING This is where the decoding of the tones and the switching of the phone lines are carried out. The switching is performed by use of a relay is used in the phone circuit because of the voltage of the ring back tone which uses 90V 120V while the system uses 5V 12V. The relay is used to switch between the ring back tone and the normal phone circuit. Therefore each time a call is made and it gives a ring back tone the relay switches to ring back and when the call is picked it goes back to the normal circuit.   The relay is an electromechanical switch operated by a flow of electricity in one circuit and controlling the flow of electricity in another circuit. The relay consists basically of an electromagnet with a soft iron bar, called an armature, held close to it. A movable contact is connected to the armature in such a way that the contact is held in its normal position by a spring. When the electromagnet is energized, it exerts a force on the armature that overcomes the pull of the spring and moves the contact so as to either complete or break a circuit. When the electromagnet is de-energized, the contact returns to its original position. Variations on this mechanism are possible: some relays have multiple contacts; some are encapsulated; some have built-in circuits that delay contact closure after actuation; some, as in early telephone circuits, advance through a series of positions step by step as they are energized and de-energized. They are used in a wide variety of applications throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital computers. 3.3.1 COMPARATOR The comparator is used to detect when the phone is off hook or on hook. The microcontroller is being used to monitor the comparator, once it is off-hook current flows through and it detects it. In electronics a comparator is a device which compares two voltages or currents and switches its output to indicate which is larger. A dedicated voltage comparator will also contain additional feature such as an accurate, internal voltage reference.. In theory the reference and input voltages can be anywhere between zero and the supply voltage but there are practical limitations on the actual range depending on the particular device   used(www.wikipedia.com) 3.3.2 DTMF (DUAL-TONE MULTI FREQUENCY) DTMF GENERATOR AND DECODER (MT8870): DTMF (Dual-tone Multi Frequency) is a tone composed of two sine waves of given frequencies. Individual frequencies are chosen so that it is quite easy to design frequency filters, and so that they can easily pass through telephone lines (where the maximum guaranteed bandwidth extends from about 300 Hz to 3.5 kHz). The dial tone heard when the phone set is picked up is called Dual Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF). The name was given because the tone that we heard over the phone is actually made up of two distinct frequency tones, hence the name dual tone. The DTMF tone is a form of one way communication between the dialer and the telephone exchange. A complete communication consists of the tone generator and the tone decoder. In this project MT8870 was used as the main component to decode the input dial tone to 4 digital output. The MT8870 is a complete DTMF receiver integrating both the bandsplit filter and digital decoder functions. The filter sectio n uses switched capacitor techniques for high and low group filters; the decoder uses digital counting techniques to detect and decode all 16 DTMF tone-pairs into a 4-bit code. The tones are generated from phones based on the keys pressed. This table resembles a matrix keyboard. The X and Y coordinates of each code give the two frequencies that the code is composed of. Notice that there are 16 codes; however, common DTMF dialers use only 12 of them. The A through D are system codes. Most end users wont need any of those (are used by some PBX systems for special functions).  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   It uses electronics and computer to assist in the phone line connection. Basically on the caller side, it is a dial tone generator. When a key is being pressed on the matrix keypad, it generate a unique tone consisting of two audible tone frequency. For example, if the key 1 is being press on the phone, the tone you hear is actually consist of a 697hz 1209hz sine signal. Pressing key 9 will generate the tone form by 852hz 1477hz. The frequency use in the dial tone system is of audible range suitable for transmission over the telephone cable. On the telephone exchange s ide, it has a decoder circuit to decode the tone to digital code. For example, the tone of 941hz + 1336hz will be decoded as binary 1010 as the output. This digital output will be read in by a computer, which will then act as a operator to connect the callers telephone line to the designated phone line. The telephone exchange will generate a high voltage signal to the receiving telephone, so as to ring the telephone bell, to notify the receiving user that there is an incoming call. (Stephen, 1997). 3.3.3  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   74393 DUAL 4-BIT (0-15) RIPPLE COUNTER We are using this ripple counter to clock the microcontroller also it is used for the DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency). It used as a replica counter for the DTMF decoder in order to double check the binary bits that have been decoded by the DTMF. The 74393 contains two separate 4-bit (0 to 15) counters, one on each side of the chip, they are ripple counters. The count advances as the clock input becomes low (on the falling-edge), this is indicated by the bar over the clock label. This is the usual clock behavior of ripple counters and it means a counter output can directly drive the clock input of the next counter in a chain. For normal operation the reset input should be low, making it high resets the counter to zero (0000, QA-QD low). The figure below is a 74393 clock. 3.3.4  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   8 1 LINE ANALOG SWITCH A multiplexer selects one of several input signals and passes it on to the output. It is a circuit that accepts several inputs and selects one of them at any given time to pass on to the output. The routing of the desired data input to the output is controlled by select inputs often referred to as Address inputs). The analog switch is used to switch between the four phone lines and also the dial tone, busy tone, ring back tone.` (Tocci, 2004) CHAPTER FOUR IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING 4.0 INTRODUCTION The physical realization of this project is very important, because the designer will see the result of his work. The working ability of this project was constructed to meet the desired specifications, and that is in a nutshell, a system that is capable of controlling communication between four telephone lines. This switching system is a four line private exchange box. In this chapter, the workability and efficiency of the private exchange box system, after its various subsystems have been combined together and examined. 4.1 IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING To test this project, at least two (2) touch tone telephone lines will be needed. The first phone A is   connected to the private exchange box and the second phone B also to be connected to   the exchange box. When the phone A is picked up, the microcontroller detects that the phone has been picked which will then make the hook comparator know that it is off hook. It then sends a control signal to the The 8-1 line analog switch and it switches to dial tone. When phone A recieves a dial tone, it means it is ready to make a call. When phone A makes a call by dialing the number assigned to phone B, the DTMF(Dual tone multi-frequency) Decoder decodes   the number into four binary bits   one by one and temporarily stores them in the RAM (random access memory) of the microcontroller till it matches with one of the numbers stored in the EPROM, the microcontroller checks the hook comparator of phone B if it   off-hook or on-hook. If phone B is on-hook it sends a control signal to the 8-1 line analog switch via the processor to switch to ring back   tone therefore the relay has to switch to the ring generator and disconnect from the normal circuit because the ring genera tor uses 90V while the normal circuit uses 5V- 12V. Phone B will then ring and when the phone is picked you are able to communicate with each other . If the microcontroller detects that the phone is off-hook, it sends a control signal to the 8-1 line analog switch and it switches to busy tone. That means the phone B is in use so you cannot talk to that person at that time you have to call back later. 4.2   OBSERVATIONS The project is working as expected. Calls can be made from any of the phones and the ring tone, busy tone and dial tone is heard. Calls can be made simultaneously and you can hear the voice   of the person talking clearly. There is no limit to the time at which you   can talk. CHAPTER FIVE RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION 5.0 INTRODUCTIONThis chapter gives a summary of all the chapters in this project, a conclusion and also recommends where the system can be used. 5.1 SUMMARY Chapter one talks about the introduction of the project and its layout. In Chapter two we talked about the history of the project, the system components, reviewed other works that have been carried out relating to our project, how telephones work. The Third chapter analyzes the components that make up the system and how they relate to each other in order to make the system function. Chapter four explains how the system works during testing and how it is expected to function.  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   5.2 RECOMMENDATION The execution of this project has left possibilities for improvement which could not be carried out during the design and implementation because of the limited time and resources. The possible improvement on this project is that the amount of phones used can be increased and you can have one of the phone lines connected to an external line for trunk calls.This project is recommended for use in offices, at home, hospitals or hotels For full implementation in a bigger area you can increase the number of telephone lines in the system so that more people can have access to each other. 5.3 CONCLUSION The beauty of this project is the fact that a means of communication that is cheap, efficient, secure and technology driven has been designed. The Four Line Telephone Exchange Box is a device that enhances the internal communication within an office or home. The idea of Communication is reliability, security, efficiency, connectivity and cost. This Project has put all this into consideration, and has come out with a very efficient way of communicating in perhaps an Organization, offices and even for our Case Study Babcock University. Bibliography Bigelow, Stephen (1997). Understanding Telephone Electronics. New York, Newness Calvert, J. B (2003).Basic Telephones and Switchboard. London, Pitman. Harlow, James (2004). Electric Power Transformer Engineering. New Jersey. CRC Press. Brooks, John (1995). The First Hundred Years of Telephone. New York: Harper and Row. Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, IEEE Press and J. Wiley Sons. New York. M. Morris Mano and Charles R. Kime (2008). Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals, Prentice Hall, Inc. Milton Mueller (1989). Technology and Culture, Vol. 30.   Virginia, Pitman. Myer, Ralph O (1995). Old Time Telephones: Technology, Restoration and Repair. New York, Tab Books. Noll A. Michael (1999). Introduction to Telephones and Telephone Systems. Norwood, Mass. Artech House. Payne, William (1998). Embedded Controller Forth for the 8051 Family, London, Macmillan Press Ronald J. Tocci, Neal S.Widner Gregory L. Moss (2004). Digital systems principles and applications, pp 525-531 .New Jersey, Prentice Hall. Steve Roberts (2006). Telephone Installation Handbook . Exeter, Pergammon. www.howstuffworks.com www.privateline.com www.whatis.comwww.answers.com www.wikipedia.com

Comparing Martin Luther King Jrs Letter from a...

There are several points of similarities and differences found within Martin Luther King Jr.s Letter from a Birmingham jail and Amata Millers The many faces of social justice. One can interpret both of these essays as literature promoting equality and ending issues of racism. However, a thorough analysis of each work indicates that both authors advocate a difference approach in achieving what are similar ends. An examination of the authors respective works indicates that Millers methodology is more applicable to the author than Kings is. King Jr.s definition of social justice within his essay is civic equality between Caucasians and those of African and African American descent. This form of civic equality includes equitable access to facilities and to rights that all Americans allegedly have. Moreover, King Jr. also is alluding to and end of segregation and a full-fledged integration of the races (King Jr., 1963). He certainly advocates an end to the violence African Americans had to endure while simply asking for, and demonstrating their need to access, civic rights. The strategies that King Jr. elucidates within this document to achieve these objectives are manifold. On the one hand he calls for peaceful, non-violent tactics most noticeably in the form of civic demonstrations in which he and his adherents readily accept any violence their actions might produce without resorting to violence themselves. Violence is one of the five forms of social oppression

Security Policies And The Security Plan - 1441 Words

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Modems Essay Example For Students

Modems Essay ModemsModems are used to connect two computers over a phone line. Modem isshort for Modulator Demodulator. Its a device that converts data from digitalcomputer signals to analog signals that can be sent over a phone line. This iscalled modulation. The analog signals are then converted back into digital databy the receiving modem. This is called demodulation. A modem is fed digitalinformation, in the form of ones and zeros, from the CPU. The modem thenanalyzes this information and converts it to analog signals, that can be sentover a phone line. Another modem then receives these signals, converts them backinto digital data, and sends the data to the receiving CPU. At connection time,modems send tones to each other to negotiate the fastest mutually supportedmodulation method that will work over whatever quality line has been establishedfor that call. There are two main differences in the types of modems for PC,internal and external modems. Evolution of ModemsIn the last 10 years, modem users have gone from data transfer rates of300bps to 1,200 bps to 2,400 bps to 9,600 bps to 14.4Kbps to 28.8Kbps to, and to33.6Kbps. Now new modem standards are emerging, reaching speeds of up to56Kbps. Unlike the 33.6Kbps modems being sold today, 56Kbps is a significantimprovement over 28.8Kbps modems. Viewing complex graphics or downloading soundfiles improves significantly with 56Kbps. The modem experts keep telling us thatwe are about maxed out. For instance when the 28.8 modems where first introducedthey said that weve reached our maximum speed, and the same thing was saidabout the 33.6 and now again for the 56K, but how true is this? The experts saythat the next major improvement will have to come from the telephone companies,when they start laying down fibber-optic cables so we can have integratedservices digital network (ISDN) . The thing that makes digital modems betterthan analog is because with analog modem transmission errors are very frequentwhich results in your modem freezing or just freaking out. These errors arecaused mainly by some kind of noise on the line due to lightning storms,sunspots, and other fascinating electromagnetic phenomena, noise occurs anywhereon the line between your PC and the computer youre communicating with 2,000miles away. Even if line noise is minimal, most modems will automatically reduceits speed to avoid introducing data errors. Baud vs bpsWhile taking about modems, the transmission speed is the source of a lotof confusion. The root of the problem is the fact that the terms baud andbits per second are used interchangeably. This is a result of the fact thatits easier to say baud than bits per second, though misinformation has ahand in it, too. A baud is A change in signal from positive to negative orvice-versa that is used as a measure of transmission speed and bits per secondis a measure of the number of data bits (digital 0s and 1s) transmitted eachsecond in a communications channel. This is sometimes referred to as bit rate.Individual characters (letters, numbers, spaces, etc.), also referred to asbytes, are composed of 8 bits. Technically, baud is the number of times persecond that the carrier signal shifts value, for example a 1200 bit-per-secondmodem actually runs at 300 baud, but it moves 4 bits per baud (4 x 300 = 1200bits per second). Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Data TransferSynchronous and Asynchronous data transfer are two methods of sendingdata over a phone line. In synchronous data transmission, data is sent via abit-stream, which sends a group of characters in a single stream. In order to dothis, modems gather groups of characters into a buffer, where they are preparedto be sent as such a stream. In order for the stream to be sent, synchronousmodems must be in perfect synchronization with each other. They accomplish thisby sending special characters, called synchronization, or syn, characters. Whenthe clocks of each modem are in synchronization, the data stream is sent. In asynchronous transmission, data is coded into a series of pulses,including a start bit and a stop bit. A start bit is sent by the sending modemto inform the receiving modem that a character is to be sent. The character isthen sent, followed by a stop bit designating that the transfer of that bit iscomplete. Modems SpeedsA full page of English text is about 16,000 bits. And in order to viewfull-motion full-screen video it would require roughly 10,000,000 bits-per--second, depending on data compression. The Past 300 bps (both ways)1 200 bps (both ways)2 400 bps (both ways)9 600 bps (both ways)14 400 bps (both ways)Current Speeds 28 000 bps (both ways)33 600 bps (both ways)X2 or K56Plu56 000 bps (downloading)33 600 bps (uploading)ISDN single channel64 000 bps (both ways)ISDN two channel128 000 bps (both ways)SDSL384 000 bps (both ways)Satellite integrated modem 400 000 bps (downloading)ADSL (T-1)1 544 000 bps (downloading)128 000 bps (uploading)Cable modem (T-1)1 600 000 bps (both ways)(Videotron)Ethernet (T-2)10 000 000 bps (both ways)Cable modem (T-2) 10 to 27 000 000 bps (both ways)(in general)FDDI(T-3)100 000 000 bps (both ways)In some cases, the modem-equipped PC with a 28.8Kbps modem would befaster than a 33.6Kbps or even 56K modem, especially with sites that dont havea great deal of graphics. Thats because there are several factors thatdetermine how long it takes to reach and display a Web site. These include thespeed of your PC, your connection to your Internet service provid er, your ISPsconnection to the Internet itself, traffic on the Internet and the speed andcurrent traffic conditions on the site youre visiting. A good example would be,say you drive a fancy sports car and I drove along in my family minivan, youllcertainly beat me on an open stretch of road. But if were both stuck in atraffic jam, youll move just as slowly as me. In short, any modem willsometimes operate below its rated speed. According to the vice president of amajor 33.6Kbps modem company, you can expect a full 33.6Kbps connection aboutone out of 10 tries. HG Wells EssayIn addition to the dish, you get a 16-bit card that plugs into an ISAport of a desktop PC. The draw back to the system is that it eliminates Macs,notebook PCs and any other machines that dont have available slots. You will find a noticeable difference when viewing sites with videoand lots of graphics. This could eventually be a big advantage as an increasingnumber of information providers start using the Internet for full-motion videoand other multimedia presentations. But DirecPC for now doesnt offerspectacular advantages for normal Web surfing. And if youre thinking about along-term investment, consider that in the future there will be other optionsfor high-speed Net access. ADSL / SDSLADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) a method for moving dataover regular phone lines. An ADSL circuit is much faster than a regular phoneconnection, and the wires coming into the subscribers home are the same copperwires used for regular phone service. An ADSL circuit must be configured toconnect two specific locations. A commonly used configuration of ADSL is toallow a subscriber to download data at speeds of up to 1.544 megabits per second,and to upload data at speeds of 128 kilobits per second. ADSL is often used asan alternative to ISDN, allowing higher speeds in cases where the connection isalways to the same place. SDSL (Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line) is adifferent configuration of ADSL capable of 384 Kilobits per second in bothdirections. Cable modemsAnother type of modems are cable modems. It uses the same black coaxialcable that connects millions of TVs nationwide and is also capable of carryingcomputer data at the same time. Its able to uploading and downloadingapproximately 10 to 27 megabits per second. A 500K file that would take 1.5minutes to download via ISDN but would take about one second over cable. Classification Of ModemsA classification of modems that are capable of carrying data at1,544,000 bits-per-second are called T-1. At maximum capacity, a T-1 line couldmove a megabyte in less than 10 seconds. That is still not fast enough for full-screen, full-motion video, for which you need at least 10,000,000 bits-per-second. T-1 is the fastest speed commonly used to connect networks to theInternet. Modems that are capable of carrying data at 3,152,000 bits-per-second are refereed to as T-1C. Modems that are capable of carrying data at6,312,000 bits-per-second are refereed to as T-2. And modems that are capableof carrying data at 44,736,000 bits-per-second are refereed to as T-3. This ismore than enough to do full-screen, full-motion video. Modems that are capableof carrying data at 274,176,000 bits-per-second are refereed to as T-4. EthernetA very common method of networking computers in a LAN (local areanetwork) is called Ethernet. It will handle about 10,000,000 bits-per-second andcan be used with almost any kind of computer. FDDIFDDI, (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a standard for transmittingdata on optical fiber cables at a rate of around 100,000,000 bits-per-second. Its 10 times as fast as Ethernet, and approximately twice as fast as T-3. Most modems mentioned such as T-1, T-2, T-3, etc. are not intended forhome use. These high speed connections are use mainly for big businesses. Buteven such speeds as T-4 and FDDI are use very little among big companies, butmore of the Army, NASA, the Government, etc. Theyre highly priced which makesthem only available to larger corporations and organizations who need to sendhuge amounts data from one place to another in little time or no time at all. Apart the price factor when would you need to transfer data that is on a CD-ROMdisk holding its full capacity (650 Mb) across the world in 52 seconds? Technology